Cervical spine fractures with C1-C3 vertebral fracture |
Extension into transverse foramen or lateral elements of vertebra |
Luxation/subluxation or distraction mechanism |
Closed head injury with diffuse axonal injury |
Neurologic examinations incongruent with brain imaging |
Stroke or transient ischemic attack |
Horner syndrome |
Basilar skull fracture with involvement of carotid canal, foramen lacerum |
Severe maxillofacial fracture |
Carotid or vertebral artery perivascular hematoma |
Neck soft tissue injury (eg, seatbelt injury or hanging) |
Note:—BCVI indicates blunt carotid and vertebral artery injury.
From Utter et al9, Cothren et al10, Miller et al14, and Sliker et al15.