TY - JOUR T1 - Imaging of Neuromodulation and Surgical Interventions for Epilepsy JF - American Journal of Neuroradiology JO - Am. J. Neuroradiol. SP - 1742 LP - 1750 DO - 10.3174/ajnr.A7222 VL - 42 IS - 10 AU - M.E. Adin AU - D.D. Spencer AU - E. Damisah AU - A. Herlopian AU - J.L. Gerrard AU - R.A. Bronen Y1 - 2021/10/01 UR - http://www.ajnr.org/content/42/10/1742.abstract N2 - SUMMARY: About one-third of epilepsy cases are refractory to medical therapy. During the past decades, the availability of surgical epilepsy interventions has substantially increased as therapeutic options for this group of patients. A wide range of surgical interventions and electrophysiologic neuromodulation techniques are available, including lesional resection, lobar resection, thermoablation, disconnection, multiple subpial transections, vagus nerve stimulation, responsive neurostimulation, and deep brain stimulation. The indications and imaging features of potential complications of the newer surgical interventions may not be widely appreciated, particularly if practitioners are not associated with comprehensive epilepsy centers. In this article, we review a wide range of invasive epilepsy treatment modalities with a particular focus on their postoperative imaging findings and complications. A state-of-the-art treatment algorithm provides context for imaging findings by helping the reader understand how a particular invasive treatment decision is made.ANTanterior thalamic nucleusATLanterior temporal lobectomyDBSdeep brain stimulationEEGelectroencephalogramFGATIRfast gray matter acquisition T1 inversion recoveryLITTlaser interstitial thermal therapyMSTmultiple subpial transectionMTSmesial temporal sclerosisRNSresponsive neurostimulationVNSvagus nerve stimulation ER -